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(b) Explain how the following teratogens affect prenalal development. i. Rubella (2 marks) ii.Alcohol (2 marks) iii. Rhesus incompatibility (2 marks) 4. (a) Describe the first four psychosocial stages of personality development according to Erik Erickson. (b) Discuss the identity statuses of adolescent according to James Mercia. (12 merks) (8 marks)
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(b)Explain how the following teratogens affect prenatal development.i. Rubella: Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection that can cause serious birth defects if contracted during pregnancy, particularly in the first trimester. The virus can cross the placenta and affect the developing fetus, leading to a range of congenital abnormalities. These can include heart defects, deafness, cataracts, and intellectual disabilities. The severity of the defects depends on the timing of infection and the mother's immune status.ii. Alcohol: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD), a group of conditions that can cause physical, behavioral, and learning problems in the child. Alcohol crosses the placenta and can affect the developing fetus at any stage of pregnancy. It can interfere with the normal development of the brain and other organs, leading to a range of issues such as low birth weight, facial abnormalities, and developmental delays. The severity of the effects depends on the amount and frequency of alcohol consumed, as well as the timing of exposure.iii. Rhesus incompatibility: Rhesus incompatibility occurs when a pregnant woman has Rh-negative blood and her baby has Rh-positive blood, inherited from the father. During pregnancy, if the baby's blood cells enter the mother's bloodstream, the mother's immune system may recognize the baby's Rh-positive blood cells as foreign and produce antibodies against them. This can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), where the baby's red blood cells are destroyed. This condition can cause severe anemia, jaundice, and in severe cases, heart failure or death. The risk of Rh incompatibility is higher in subsequent pregnancies if the mother becomes sensitized to Rh-positive blood during the first pregnancy.4.(a)Describe the first four psychosocial stages of personality development according to Erik Erikson.Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development outlines eight stages that an individual goes through from infancy to late adulthood. The first four stages are:1. **Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year):** In this stage, infants learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. If caregivers are consistent and responsive, infants develop a sense of trust and security. Failure to develop trust can lead to feelings of mistrust and insecurity.2. **Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years):** During this stage, children begin to assert their independence and develop a sense of autonomy. Successful resolution leads to feelings of autonomy and confidence, while failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.3. **Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years):** Children start to initiate activities and interact with others. Developing initiative leads to a sense of purpose and direction, while excessive criticism can result in feelings of guilt.4. **Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-12 years):** Children begin to compare themselves with their peers and develop a sense of industry. Success in this stage leads to a sense of competence and achievement, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.(b)Discuss the identity statuses of adolescents according to James Marcia.James Marcia proposed four identity statuses for adolescents based on their exploration and commitment to various roles and beliefs. These statuses are:1. **Identity Diffusion:** Adolescents in this status have not yet explored different options or made any commitments. They lack direction and have not yet developed a sense of identity.2. **Identity Foreclosure:** In this status, adolescents have committed to an identity without exploring other options. They often accept the values and roles of their parents or society without questioning or exploring alternatives.3. **Identity Moratorium:** Adolescents in this status are actively exploring different roles, beliefs, and options but have not yet made a commitment. This stage is characterized by experimentation and a search for self-identity.4. **Identity Achievement:** In this status, adolescents have explored various options and made a commitment to a particular identity. They have a clear sense of who they are and what they believe in.Marcia's theory emphasizes the importance of both exploration and commitment in the development of identity during adolescence.