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SECTION B: ANSWER ALL 60mks 61. state the applications of buffers 4mks 4mks 62 describe the principles of operation of paper chromatography 4mks 63. state the applications of paper chromatography 4mks 64. discuss the limit test for chloride ions 65. state 4 anions used as electrolytes in the body 4mks 66. highlight the roles of copper in the body 4mks 67. state 4 roles of manganese in the body 4mks 68. state 4 properties of non-absorbable antacids 4mks 69. state 4 changes that can result when impurities are introduced into medicinal compounds 4mks 70. highlight the parameters for controlling impurities in pharmaceuticals 4mks SECTION C ANSWER ALL.QUESTIONS 60MKS 76 discuss properties and reaction of various substances used as antacids 20mks 77a) discuss the management of achlorhydria 10mks b) describe the role of water in human body 10mks 78. discuss the principles of limit tests for various impurities found in pharmaceutical compounds 20mks
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61. **Applications of Buffers:** - Buffers are crucial in maintaining pH balance in various biological and chemical systems. They are used in: 1. **Biological Systems:** Buffers help maintain the pH of blood, urine, and other bodily fluids within narrow ranges, which is essential for normal physiological functions. 2. **Industrial Applications:** Buffers are used in fermentation processes, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and in the production of food and beverages to maintain optimal pH levels. 3. **Laboratory Settings:** Buffers are used in titrations and other chemical analyses to ensure accurate results a stable pH during the reaction. 4. **Cosmetic and Personal Care Products:** Buffers are used in cosmetics and personal care products to maintain the desired pH, ensuring product stability and skin compatibility.62. **Principles of Operation of Paper Chromatography:** - Paper chromatography separates components of a mixture based on their differential migration through a stationary phase (paper) and a mobile phase (solvent). The process involves: 1. **Application:** A small amount of the mixture is applied to a piece of paper near one end. 2. **Development:** The paper is placed in a solvent, and the solvent moves up the paper by capillary action. 3. **Separation:** Components of the mixture move at different rates based on their solubility and affinity for the separation. 4. **Detection:** Separated components can be detected using indicators or visualization techniques.63. **Applications of Paper Chromatography:** - Paper chromatography is used in various applications, including: 1. **Qualitative Analysis:** To identify the presence of different components in a mixture. 2. **Purity Testing:** To assess the purity of a substance by separating and identifying impurities. 3. **Monitoring Reactions:** To monitor the progress of chemical reactions by analyzing reaction mixtures. 4. **Educational Tool:** As a simple and effective method for teaching basic principles of separation techniques.64. **Limit Test for Chloride Ions:** - The limit test for chloride ions involves adding a measured amount of the substance to a known volume of nitric acid. are present, they will react with silver ions to form a white precipitate of silver chloride. The amount of silver nitrate required to produce this precipitate is compared to the amount of the substance tested to determine if the chloride ion content is within acceptable limits.65. **Anions Used as Electrolytes in the Body:** - The four anions commonly used as electrolytes in the body are: 1. **Chloride (Cl⁻):** Involved in maintaining fluid balance and acid-base balance. 2. **Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻):** Acts as a buffer to maintain the pH of blood and other body fluids. 3. **Phosphate (PO₄³⁻):** Involved in energy metabolism and regulation of pH. 4. **Sulfate (SO₄² Involved in various metabolic processes and maintaining fluid balance.66. **Roles of Copper in the Body:** - Copper plays several important roles in the body, including: 1. **Catalysis:** Acts as a cofactor for enzymes involved in oxidation-reduction reactions. 2. **Iron Metabolism:** Involved in the absorption and transport of iron in the body. 3. **Neurological Function:** Essential for the formation of myelin, the protective sheath around nerve fibers. 4. **Connective Tissue Formation:** Necessary for the synthesis of collagen and elastin, important for skin and connective tissue integrity.67. **Roles of Manganese in the Body:** - Manganese serves various functions in the body, including: 1. **Bone Formation:** Involved in the formation and maintenance of bones. 2. Defense:** Acts as a cofactor for antioxidant enzymes that protect cells from oxidative damage. 3. **Metabolism:** Involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol. 4. **Nervous System Function:** Essential for normal brain and nerve function, particularly in the synthesis of neurotransmitters.68. **Properties of Non-Absorbable Antacids:** - Non-absorbable antacids have specific properties that distinguish them from absorbable antacids: 1. **Non-Absorption:** They are not absorbed into the bloodstream. 2. **Local Action:** They act locally within the stomach to neutralize stomach acid. 3. **Short Duration:** Their effects are short-lived, providing quick relief from symptoms. 4. **Excretion:** They are excreted in the fec making them suitable for short-term use.69. **Changes Resulting from Impurities in Medicinal Compounds:** - Impurities in medicinal compounds can lead to various changes, including: