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SECTION C ANSWER ALL.QUESTIONS 60MKS 76 discuss properties and reaction of various substances used as antacids 20mks 77a) discuss the management of achlorhydria 10mks b) describe the role of water in human body 10mks 78. discuss the principles of limit tests for various impurities found in pharmaceutical compounds 20mks
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76. Antacids are substances used to neutralize excess stomach acid and provide relief from symptoms such as heartburn and indigestion. The properties and reactions of various substances used as antacids are as follows:1. Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)2):- Properties: Magnesium hydroxide is a white, crystalline powder that is insoluble in water.- Reaction: When magnesium hydroxide reacts with stomach acid (hydrochloric acid, HCl), it forms magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and water (H2O). The reaction is as follows: Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O.2. Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)3):- Properties: Aluminum hydroxide is a white, powdery substance that is insoluble in water.- Reaction: When aluminum hydroxide reacts with stomach acid (HCl), it forms aluminum chloride (AlCl3) and water (H2O). The reaction is as follows: Al(OH)3 + 3HCl → AlCl3 + 3H2O.3. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3):- Properties: Calcium carbonate is a white, crystalline powder that is insoluble in water.- Reaction: When calcium carbonate reacts with stomach acid (HCl), it forms calcium chloride (CaCl2), water (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The reaction is as follows: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2.4. Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3):- Properties: Sodium bicarbonate is a white, crystalline powder that is soluble in water.- Reaction: When sodium bicarbonate reacts with stomach acid (HCl), it forms sodium chloride (NaCl), water (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The reaction is as follows: NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2.These antacids work by neutralizing the excess acid in the stomach, thereby reducing the acidity and providing relief from symptoms associated with excess stomach acid.77. a) Achlorhydria refers to a condition where there is a complete absence of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach. The management of achlorhydria involves addressing the underlying cause and managing the symptoms. Some approaches include:- Dietary modifications: Consuming a balanced diet that includes adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals, as achlorhydria can lead to deficiencies.- Medications: Taking medications to replace the missing hydrochloric acid, such as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) or H2 receptor antagonists, to reduce stomach acid and provide symptomatic relief.- Supplements: Taking supplements to address any deficiencies that may arise due to achlorhydria, such as vitamin B12 supplements.- Monitoring and follow-up: Regular monitoring by a healthcare professional to assess the underlying cause and adjust treatment as needed.b) Water plays a crucial role in the human body. Some of its roles include:- Regulating body temperature: Water helps to regulate body temperature through processes such as sweating and evaporation.- Transporting nutrients and waste: Water is involved in the transportation of nutrients and waste products throughout the body.- Lubricating joints: Water acts as a lubricant for the joints, reducing friction and allowing for smooth movement.- Maintaining cell function: Water is essential for maintaining the proper function of cells, as it is involved in various cellular processes.- Aiding in digestion: Water is necessary for the digestion and absorption of food, as it helps to break down food and facilitate the absorption of nutrients.78. Limit tests are used in pharmaceutical compounding to detect the presence of impurities in substances. The principles of limit tests for various impurities found in pharmaceutical compounds are as follows:1. Specificity: The limit test should be specific to the impurity being tested for, meaning that it should only detect the impurity and not interfere with the detection of other impurities.2. Sensitivity: The limit test should be sensitive enough to detect the lowest possible concentration of the impurity in the substance.3. Accuracy: The limit test should provide accurate results, with a known and defined limit for the impurity being tested for.4. Precision: The limit test should be precise, with consistent and reproducible results when repeated under the same conditions.5. Selectivity: The limit test should be selective, meaning that it should only detect the impurity being tested for and not interfere with the detection of other impurities.6. Validity: The limit test should be valid for the specific substance being tested, with a known and defined limit for the impurity being tested for.7. Compliance: The limit test should comply with regulatory guidelines and standards for pharmaceutical compounding.By following these principles, limit tests can be effectively used to detect and quantify impurities