SECTION B: ANSWER ALL 60mks 4mks 61. state the applications of buffers 4mks 62 describe the principles of operation of paper chromatography 63. state the applications of paper chromatography 64. discuss the limit test for chloride ions 65. state 4 anions used as electrolytes in the body 66. highlight the roles of copper in the body 67. state 4 roles of manganese in the body 4mks 68. state 4 properties of non-absorbable antacids 4mks 69. state 4 changes that can result when impurities are introduced into medicinal compounds 4mks 70. highlight the parameters for controlling impurities in pharmaceuticals

61. **Applications of Buffers:**<br /> - **Biological Systems:** Buffers help maintain the pH of blood and other bodily fluids within a narrow range, which is crucial for enzyme function and metabolic processes.<br /> - **Industrial Processes:** Buffers are used in fermentation, chemical manufacturing, and wastewater treatment to maintain optimal pH levels.<br /> - **Laboratory Settings:** Buffers are essential in various biochemical assays and experiments to ensure accurate results by maintaining a stable pH environment.<br /> - **Agriculture:** Buffers are used in soil amendments to neutralize acidic or alkaline soils, thereby improving nutrient availability and plant growth.<br /><br />62. **Principles of Operation of Paper Chromatography:**<br /> - **Mobile Phase:** A solvent or mixture of solvents moves through a stationary phase, which is a piece of paper.<br /> - **Stationary Phase:** The paper, which remains fixed in place, acts as the medium through which the mobile phase moves.<br /> - **Separation:** Different components of a mixture travel at different rates based on their affinity for the mobile phase versus the stationary phase, leading to separation.<br /> - **Detection:** Separated components can be visualized using various methods, such as staining or UV light, depending on their chemical properties.<br /><br />63. **Applications of Paper Chromatography:**<br /> - **Medical Diagnostics:** Used to detect the presence of specific substances in blood, urine, or other biological samples.<br /> - **Quality Control:** Employed in pharmaceuticals and food industries to ensure the purity and integrity of products.<br /> - **Educational Tool:** Widely used in educational settings to teach basic principles of separation techniques.<br /> - **Forensic Science:** Utilized in forensic labs to analyze substances found at crime scenes, such as drugs, inks, and dyes.<br /><br />64. **Limit Test for Chloride Ions:**<br /> - **Procedure:** A small amount of the substance is dissolved in distilled water, and a few drops of silver nitrate solution are added.<br /> - **Observation:** If a white precipitate of silver chloride forms, it indicates the presence of chloride ions.<br /> - **Significance:** The limit test helps in detecting the presence of chloride ions in a substance, which is important in various industrial and analytical applications.<br /><br />65. **Anions Used as Electrolytes in the Body:**<br /> - **Chloride (Cl⁻):** Involved in maintaining fluid balance and is a component of stomach acid.<br /> - **Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻):** Acts as a buffer to maintain the pH of blood and other bodily fluids.<br /> - **Phosphate (PO₄³⁻):** Essential for energy metabolism and the regulation of pH.<br /> - **Sulfate (SO₄²⁻):** Involved in the formation of sulfuric acid and plays a role in cellular metabolism.<br /><br />66. **Roles of Copper in the Body:**<br /> - **Enzyme Function:** Copper is a cofactor for enzymes involved in energy production, iron metabolism, and neurotransmitter synthesis.<br /> - **Antioxidant Defense:** It helps in the formation of superoxide dismutase, an enzyme that neutralizes harmful free radicals.<br /> - **Connective Tissue Formation:** Copper is involved in the synthesis of collagen, which is essential for the formation of connective tissues.<br /> - **Neurological Function:** It plays a role in the formation of myelin, the protective sheath around nerve fibers.<br /><br />67. **Roles of Manganese in the Body:**<br /> - **Bone Health:** Manganese is involved in the formation of bone and cartilage.<br /> - **Antioxidant Defense:** It helps in the formation of superoxide dismutase, an enzyme that neutralizes harmful free radicals.<br /> - **Metabolism of Nutrients:** Manganese is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol.<br /> - **Nervous System Function:** It plays a role in neurotransmitter synthesis and the functioning of the nervous system.<br /><br />68. **Properties of Non-Absorbable Antacids:**<br /> - **Non-Absorbable:** These antacids do not get absorbed into the bloodstream.<br /> - **Bloating:** They can cause bloating and gas as they remain in the stomach.<br /> - **Short-acting:** Typically provide quick relief for acid-related symptoms but may need to be taken frequently.<br /> - **Inexpensive:** Generally less expensive than absorbable antacids.<br /><br />69. **Changes Resulting from Impurities in Medicinal Compounds:**<br /> - **Reduced Efficacy:** Impurities may dilute the active ingredient, reducing the overall effectiveness of the medication.<br /> - **Toxicity:** Some impurities can be toxic and cause adverse effects when ingested.<br /> - **Inconsistent Dosage:** Impurities can lead to variations in dosage, affecting the intended therapeutic outcome.<br /> - **Short Shelf Life:** Impurities can accelerate the degradation of the medicinal compound, reducing its shelf life.<br /><br />70. **Parameters for Controlling Impurities in Pharmaceuticals:**<br /> - **Quality Control:** Rigorous testing and analysis to ensure the absence of impurities